Cost Control and Cost Reduction Essays

Cost Control and Cost Reduction Essays Cost Control and Cost Reduction Essay Cost Control and Cost Reduction Essay PRINCIPLES OF COST CONTROL 1. 1 Introduction Cost is important to all industry. Costs can be divided into two general classes; absolute costs and relative costs. Absolute cost measures the loss in value of assets. Relative cost involves a comparison between the chosen course of action and the course of action that was rejected. This cost of the alternative action the action not taken is often called the opportunity cost. The accountant is primarily concerned with the absolute cost. However, the forest engineer, the planner, the manager needs to be concerned with the alternative cost the cost of the lost opportunity. Management has to be able to make comparisons between the policy that should be chosen and the policy that should be rejected. Such comparisons require the ability to predict costs, rather than merely record costs. Cost data are, of course, essential to the technique of cost prediction. However, the form in which much cost data are recorded limits accurate cost prediction to the field of comparable situations only. This limitation of accurate cost prediction may not be serious in industries where the production environment changes little from month to month or year to year. In harvesting, however, identical production situations are the exception rather than the rule. Unless the cost data are broken down and recorded as unit costs, and correlated with the factors that control their values, they are of little use in deciding between alternative procedures. Here, the approach to the problem of useful cost data is that of identification, isolation, and control of the factors affecting cost. . 2 Basic Classification of Costs Costs are divided into two types: variable costs, and fixed costs. Variable costs vary per unit of production. For example, they may be the cost per cubic meter of wood yarded, per cubic meter of dirt excavated, etc. Fixed costs, on the other hand, are incurred only once and as additional units of production are produced, the unit costs fall. Examples of fixed costs would be eq uipment move-in costs and road access costs. 1. 3 Total Cost and Unit-Cost Formulas As harvesting operations become more complicated and involve both fixed and ariable costs, there usually is more than one way to accomplish a given task. It may be possible to change the quantity of one or both types of cost, and thus to arrive at a minimum total cost. Mathematically, the relationship existing between volume of production and costs can be expressed by the following equations: Total cost = fixed cost + variable cost ? output In symbols using the first letters of the cost elements and N for the output or number of units of production, these simple formulas are C = F + NV UC = F/N + V 1. Breakeven Analysis A breakeven analysis determines the point at which one method becomes superior to another method of accomplishing some task or objective. Breakeven analysis is a common and important part of cost control. One illustration of a breakeven analysis would be to compare two methods of road construction for a road that involves a limited amount of cut-and-fill earthwork. It would be possible to do the earthwork by hand or by bulldozer. If the manual method were adopted, the fixed costs would be low or non-existent. Payment would be done on a daily basis and would call for direct supervision by a foreman. The cost would be calculated by estimating the time required and multiplying this time by the average wages of the men employed. The men could also be paid on a piece-work basis. Alternatively, this work could be done by a bulldozer which would have to be moved in from another site. Let us assume that the cost of the hand labor would be $0. 60 per cubic meter and the bulldozer would cost $0. 40 per cubic meter and would require $100 to move in from another site. The move for Excavation. If, on a set of coordinates, cost in dollars is plotted on the vertical axis and units of production on the horizontal axis, we can indicate fixed cost for any process by a horizontal line parallel to the x-axis. If variable ost per unit output is constant, then the total cost for any number of units of production will be the sum of the fixed cost and the variable cost multiplied by the number of units of production, or F + NV. If the cost data for two processes or methods, one of which has a higher variable cost, but lower fixed cost than the other are plotted on the same graph, the total cost lines will intersect at some point. At this point the levels of production and total cost are the same. This point is known as the breakeven point, since at this level one method is as economical as the other. Referring to Figure 1. 1 the breakeven point at which quantity the bulldozer alternative and the manual labor alternative become equal is at 500 cubic meters. We could have found this same result algebraically by writing F + NV = F + NV where F and V are the fixed and variable costs for the manual method, and F and V are the corresponding values for the bulldozer method. Since all values are known except N, we can solve for N using the formula N = (F F) / (V V) 1. 5 Minimum Cost Analyses A similar, but different problem is the determination of the point of minimum total cost. Instead of balancing two methods with different fixed and variable costs, the aim is to bring the sum of two costs to a minimum. We will assume a clearing crew of 20 men is clearing road right-of-way and the following facts are available: 1. Men are paid at the rate of $0. 40 per hour. 2. Time is measured from the time of leaving camp to the time of return. 3. Total walking time per man is increasing at the rate of 15 minutes per day. 4. The cost to move the camp is $50. If the camp is moved each day, no time is lost walking, but the camp cost is $50 per day. If the camp is not moved, on the second day 15 crew-minutes are lost or $2. 00. On the third day, the total walking time has increased 30 minutes, the fourth day, 45 minutes, and so on. How often should the camp be moved assuming all other things are equal? We could derive an algebraic expression using the sum of an arithmetic series if we wanted to solve this problem a number of times, but for demonstration purposes we can simply calculate the average total camp cost. The average total camp cost is the sum of the average daily cost of walking time plus the average daily cost of moving camp. If we moved camp each day, then average daily cost of walking time would be zero and the cost of moving camp would be $50. 00. If we moved the camp every other day, the cost of walking time is $2. 00 lost the second day, or an average of $1. 00 per day. The average daily cost of moving camp is $50 divided by 2 or $25. 00. The average total camp cost is then $26. 00. If we continued this process for various numbers of days the camp remains in location, we would obtain the results in Table 1. 1. TABLE 1. 1 Average daily total camp cost as the sum of the cost of walking time plus the cost of moving camp. Days camp remained in location| Average daily cost of walking time| Average daily cost of moving camp| Average total camp cost| 1| 0. 00| 50. 00| 50. 00| 2| 1. 00| 25. 00| 26. 00| 3| 2. 00| 16. 67| 18. 67| 4| 3. 00| 12. 50| 15. 50| 5| 4. 00| 10. 00| 14. 00| 6| 5. 00| 8. 33| 13. 33| 7| 6. 00| 7. 14| 13. 14| 8| 7. 00| 6. 25| 13. 25| 9| 8. 00| 5. 56| 13. 56| 10| 9. 00| 5. 00| 14. 00| We see the average daily cost of walking time increasing linearly and the average cost of moving camp decreasing as the number of days the camp remains in one location increases. The minimum cost is obtained for leaving the camp in location 7 days (Figure 1. 2). This minimum cost point should only be used as a guideline as all other things are rarely equal. An important output of the analysis is the sensitivity of the total cost to deviations from the minimum cost point. In this example, the total cost changes slowly between 5 and 10 days. Often, other considerations which may be difficult to quantify will affect the decision. In Section 2, we discuss balancing road costs against skidding costs. Sometimes roads are spaced more closely together than that indicated by the point of minimum total cost if excess road construction capacity is available. In this case the goal may be to reduce the risk of disrupting skidding production because of poor weather or equipment availability. Alternatively, we may choose to space roads farther apart to reduce environmental impacts. Due to the usually flat nature of the total cost curve, the increase in total cost is often small over a wide range of road spacings. Figure 1. 2 Costs for Camp Location Example.

MOHG Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

MOHG - Essay Example bserved that the competition relating to the segment of hotel industry is likely to increase in future that ultimately depicts that Mandarin Oriental Hotel Group (MOHG) would face the difficulty new participants in the industry (Scribd Inc., 2012). By taking into concern this imperative aspect, MOHG effectively develops effective business strategies in the form of external plans. The group emphasises upon advancing its working people as well as enhancing teamwork as a structure of external strategy with the intention of dealing with the aforementioned problem (TMIUS, 2001). The suppliers’ bargaining power is expected to be moderate in recent day context as the reputed or renowned hotels do not desire to compromise their delivered services with quality (Scribd Inc., 2012). In this regard, MOHG execute the strategy of buying products in bulk quantity from its different suppliers that ultimately supports the group to lessen suppliers’ bargaining power (HKMA, n.d.). There have been numerous operators or hotels in the global hospitality industry, which eventually augments huge competition amid the existing market players (Alpen Capital, 2011). In a similar concern, MOHG adopts as well as implements effective business strategies in order to accomplish significant competitive position over its chief business market contenders. The group has been noted to frequently develop its various products or services and most significantly it organises dynamic promotional campaigns of its different services in order to remain competitive in the hospitality industry (HKMA, n.d.). The customers possess broad assortment of options that are readily accessible to them due to the introduction of internet as a form of online channels. This particular aspect not only supported the customers to take appropriate choices for their destinations but also enabled them to review as well as compare hotels along with their services by a greater extent. Thus, it can be stated that

Solar energy and environmental impacts Research Paper

Solar energy and environmental impacts - Research Paper Example Solar energy is copious in the earth and it suggests important potential for the alleviation of climate change; therefore, it is desirable due to its inherently small burden on the environment and has opportunities for positive social impacts. This is further helped by the fact that the cost of solar technologies has been reduced to significant proportions and technical advances coupled with favorable public policies that has resulted into reduction of costs. The use of solar technologies has the advantage of having low lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions when compared to other forms of fossil fuels. This is because the production of solar energy through the photovoltaics (PV) emits no pollution nor does it emit greenhouse gases (Fell, 2012). Moreover, it has the effect of improving the health and livelihood of most of the world’s poorest neighborhoods as it addresses the gaps that is not filled by the available modern energy services (IEA, 2010). Environmental Impacts A report by The Wall Street Journal stated that the development of solar on lands that are deemed desert by disturbing the caliche deposits found underground leading to the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. A similar study has equally found that the development of a solar plant could cause emission of about 6000 metric tons of carbon each year from the disturbance caused by the plant (Wall Street, 2010). Forests play a crucial role in the life of both plants and animals and hence any form of deforestation hinders the proper functioning of these species thus damaging the atmosphere. The role played by forests in human life cannot be gain said and therefore when they are cut to create room for solar plants, the absorption of carbon dioxide ceases or the carbon stored in the trees is released into the atmosphere when the tree is left to rot or is burnt. This has the overall effect of occasioning carbon dioxide build-up in the atmosphere that eventually leads to climate change. This is what happens during the installation of large-scale solar-power projects as ecosystems are interfered with when huge tracts of land are put in use. Forests have to be cleared to prevent shading of solar panels and allow for easy installation of solar posts. The removal of the forests thereafter leads to a change in the natural carbon sequestration rate that thereafter affects the amount of carbon dioxide emitted in the atmosphere. It is important to note that land use will ultimately affect the climate of a place including the local climate, microclimate and the temperature of the surface of land. Therefore, when solar panels which usually have low reflectivity and utilizes or converts large amounts of solar insulation into heat, there is the likelihood it may affect the global climate or the climate of a particular place. To minimize the effects that come about because of land use, it is important that when a solar installation is to be put in place by any stakeholder, the land selected should be in areas with low population density that translates into a low environmental sensitivity. Solar Energy and Climate Change The use of solar energy has an advantage in the sense that carbon savings derived from the use of solar energy outweighs the development of this form of energy. This means that a solar plant can save nearly 560, 000 metric tons of carbon per year (Wall Street, 2010). There is therefore a need to expand the solar power potential in order to meet the climate

PersuasiveControvserial paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

PersuasiveControvserial paper - Essay Example Thesis Abortion is not an immoral act but the only possible way for many women to avoid undesired pregnancy and protect their future. Within the pro-choice movement, arguments come from the field of legal philosophy, specifically natural law, claiming that the right-to-life is a fundamental human right which should be protected by law. Again, from the legal perspective, pro-choice encompasses those advocating a right of every woman to control her life. This lobby advocates for female's right to choose abortion. Moderates believes that abortion should be a last resort and justified in case the pregnant woman cannot raise the child or give it up for adoption, or "if the pregnancy risks pose a danger for the life and health of the woman" (Hull et al 98). It also has to do with partisan affiliation: many Democrats are radical pro-choice, while the Republicans are mostly pro-choice moderates. The problem is that it is impossible to accept the law and develop a single ethical rule suitable for all the cases. Every specific case should be discussed separately in accordance with the circumstances and patients' health cond itions. Most Americans suppose that it is unethical to use people as a mean but its more unethical to deprive other babies of a chance to survive because of speculative ethical arguments created by a group of people. The vivid example of ethical dimensions of abortion is Roe v. Wade which became a landmark event in the history of abortion in America. The woman claimed that she had become pregnant by rape and therefore was seeking an abortion. Norma and her defendant though that abortion ban violated the right of women under the First, Fourth, Fifth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution. Norma McCorvey had already given birth by the time the case was brought before the Court in December 1971. (Hull et al 93). Claiming that abortion is immoral and comparing it to killing, pro-life advocates forget about such problems poverty and hunger, lack of money and cloths. It is easy to state that 'fetus is a human'. It is possible to say that most of these people do not know hardship and poverty speaking about the God and high moral values. For many women, abortion becomes the only possible way to protect their families from poverty and hardship. For instance, some African-American and Latino families have 7 or more children, and one more children will be a real burden for them. So, banning abortions without any exceptions is a cruel and unjustifiable practice Abortion is also very bad for the morality of society as a whole. Abortion is an easy way out, so it encourages promiscuity and unprotected sex. The very notion of abortion is immoral because it ruins the whole concept of responsible parenthood. The society has the duty to protect the life of its citizens. "The right to life has been the found ation of the civilized society" (Wetstein 54). Still, there is no consensus among the scholars, politicians and members of general public as to what attitude to abortion is justified. Nor is there a consensus in the world community, since the practice of different states in this sphere varies a lot. "Whilst abortion has been accepted by the American state since the land-mark Roe vs. Wade case in the early 1970s, this is by no means a reflection of universal agreement - either international or within

Growth of Venture Capital in India

Growth of Venture Capital in India VENTURE CAPITAL:- Venture capital (also known as VC or Venture) is a type of private equity capital typically provided for early-stage, high-potential, growth companies in the interest of generating a return through an eventual realization event such as an IPO or trade sale of the company. Venture capital investments are generally made as cash in exchange for shares in the invested company. It is typical for venture capital investors to identify and back companies in high technology industries such as biotechnology and ICT (information and communication technology). Venture capital firms typically comprise small teams with technology backgrounds scientists, researchers or those with business training or deep industry experience. VCs also take a role in managing entrepreneurial companies at an early stage, thus adding skills as well as capital . Inherent in realizing abnormally high rates of returns is the risk of losing all of ones investment in a given startup company. As a consequence, most venture capital investments are done in a pool format where several investors combine their investments into one large fund that invests in many different startup companies. By investing in the pool format the investors are spreading out their risk to many different investments versus taking the chance of putting all of their monies in one start up firm. A venture capitalist (also known as a VC) is a person or investment firm that makes venture investments, and these venture capitalists are expected to bring managerial and technical expertise as well as capital to their investments. A venture capital fund refers to a pooled investment vehicle (often an LP or LLC) that primarily invests the financial capital of third-party investors in enterprises that are too risky for the standard capital markets or bank loans. Venture capital is also associated with job creation, the knowledge economy and used as a proxy measure of innovation within an economic sector or geography. Venture capital is most attractive for new companies with limited operating history that are too small to raise capital in the public markets and have not reached the point where they are able to secure a bank loan or complete a debt offering. In exchange for the high risk that venture capitalists assume by investing in smaller and less mature companies, venture capitalists usually get significant control over company decisions, in addition to a significant portion of the companys ownership (and consequently value). STRUCTURE OF VENTURE CAPITAL FIRMS:- Venture capital firms are typically structured as partnerships, the general partners of which serve as the managers of the firm and will serve as investment advisors to the venture capital funds raised. This constituency comprises both high net worth individuals and institutions with large amounts of available capital, such as state and private pension funds, university financial endowments, foundations, insurance companies, and pooled investment vehicles, called fund of funds or mutual funds. TYPES OF VENTURE CAPITAL FIRMS:- Depending on business type, the venture capital firm approach differ. When approaching a VC firm, consider their portfolio: Business Cycle: Do they invest in budding or established businesses? Industry: What is their industry focus? Investment: Is their typical investment sufficient for your needs? Location: Are they regional, national or international? Return: What is their expected return on investment? Involvement: What is their involvement level? Targeting specific types of firms will yield the best results when seeking VC financing. The National Venture Capital Association segments dozens of VC firms into ways that might assist you in your search. Many VC firms have diverse portfolios with a range of clients. If this is the case, finding gaps in their portfolio is one strategy that might succeed. ROLES WITHIN VENTURE CAPITAL FIRMS:- Although the titles are not entirely uniform from firm to firm, other positions at venture capital firms include: Venture partners Venture partners are expected to source potential investment opportunities and typically are compensated only for those deals with which they are involved. Entrepreneur-in-residence (EIR) EIRs are experts in a particular domain and perform due diligence on potential deals. EIRs are engaged by venture capital firms temporarily (six to 18 months) and are expected to develop and pitch startup ideas to their host firm. Principal This is a mid-level investment professional position, and often considered a partner-track position. Principals will have been promoted from a senior associate position or who have commensurate experience in another field such as investment banking or management consulting. Associate This is typically the most junior apprentice position within a venture capital firm. After a few successful years, an associate may move up to the senior associate position and potentially principal and beyond. Associates will often have worked for 1-2 years in another field such as investment banking or management consulting. ORIGINS OF MODERN PRIVATE EQUITY:- Before World War II, venture capital investments (originally known as development capital) were primarily the domain of wealthy individuals and families. Today true private equity investments began to emerge marked by the founding of the first two venture capital firms in 1946: American Research and Development Corporation. (ARDC) and J.H. Whitney Company. ARDC was founded by Georges Doriot, the father of venture capitalism to encourage private sector investments in businesses run by soldiers who were returning from World War II. ARDCs significance was primarily that it was the first institutional private equity investment firm that raised capital from sources other than wealthy families although it had several notable investment successes as well. ARDC is credited with the first major venture capital success story when its 1957 investment of $70,000 in Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) would be valued at over $355 million after the companys initial public offering in 1968. Venture capital firms suffered a temporary downturn in 1974, when the stock market crashed and investors were naturally wary of this new kind of investment fund. THE VENTURE CAPITAL FUNDS IN INDIA:- The concept and origin of Venture Capital, trace its growth, and highlight the venture capital regulations. It has briefly explained about the Chandra Sekhar Committee recommendations, various types of Venture Capital Funds and the venture capital process in India. A simple case on first Venture Capital Fund in India, Technology Development Information Company Of India Ltd., has also developed with concluding remarks. Introduction:- The venture capital investment helps for the growth of innovative entrepreneurships in India. Venture capital has developed as a result of the need to provide non-conventional, risky finance to new ventures based on innovative entrepreneurship. Venture capital is an investment in the form of equity, quasi-equity and sometimes debt straight or conditional, made in new or untried concepts, promoted by a technically or professionally qualified entrepreneur. Venture capital means risk capital. It refers to capital investment, both equity and debt, which carries substantial risk and uncertainties. The risk envisaged may be very high may be so high as to result in total loss or very less so as to result in high gains. THE CONCEPT OF VENTURE CAPITAL :- Venture capital means many things to many people. It is in fact nearly impossible to come across one single definition of the concept. Venture capital is defined as providing seed, start-up and first stage financing and also funding the expansion of companies that have already demonstrated their business potential but do not yet have access to the public securities market or to credit oriented institutional funding sources. The European Venture Capital Association describes it as risk finance for entrepreneurial growth oriented companies. It is investment for the medium or long term return seeking to maximize medium or long term for both parties. It is a partnership with the entrepreneur in which the investor can add value to the company because of his knowledge, experience and contact base. THE ORIGIN OF VENTURE CAPITAL :- In the 1920s 1930s, the wealthy families of and individuals investors provided the start up money for companies that would later become famous. Eastern Airlines and Xerox are the more famous ventures financed. Among the early VC funds set up, was the one by the Rockfeller Family, which started a special fund called VENROCK in 1950, to finance new technology companies. General Doriot, a professor at Harvard Business School, in 1946 set up the American Research and Development Corporation (ARD), the first firm, as opposed to a private individuals, at MIT to finance the commercial promotion of advanced technology, developed in the US Universities. ARDs approach was a classic VC in the sense that it used only equity, invested for long term, and was prepared to live with losers. ARDs investment in Digital Equipment Corporation , 1957 was a watershed in the history of VC financing. While in its early years venture capital may have been associated with high technology, over the years the concept has undergone a change and it implies pooled investment in unlisted companies. MAIN ALTERNATIVES TO VENTURE CAPITAL:- Because of the strict requirements venture capitalists have for potential investments, many entrepreneurs seek initial funding from angel investors, who may be more willing to invest in highly speculative opportunities, or may have a prior relationship with the entrepreneur. Furthermore, many venture capital firms will only seriously evaluate an investment in a start-up otherwise unknown to them if the company can prove at least some of its claims about the technology and/or market potential for its product or services. To achieve this, or even just to avoid the dilutive effects of receiving funding before such claims are proven, many start-ups seek to self-finance until they reach a point where they can credibly approach outside capital providers such as venture capitalists or angel investors. This practice is called bootstrapping. In industries where assets can be securitized effectively because they reliably generate future revenue streams or have a good potential for resale in case of foreclosure, businesses may more cheaply be able to raise debt to finance their growth. Good examples would include asset-intensive extractive industries such as mining, or manufacturing industries. Offshore funding is provided via specialist venture capital trusts which seek to utilise securitization in structuring hybrid multi market transactions via an SPV (special purpose vehicle): a corporate entity that is designed solely for the purpose of the financing. In addition to traditional venture capital and angel networks, groups have emerged which allow groups of small investors or entrepreneurs themselves to compete in a privatized business plan competition where the group itself serves as the investor through a democratic process. Venture capital (VC) arms of companies such as Intel, Cisco, Reliance ADAG, Google and Yahoo are increasing their investments in early stage technology and consumer service start-ups in India. Early Days In the absence of an organised Venture Capital industry until almost 1995, individual investors and development financial institutions played the role of venture capitalists in India. Entrepreneurs have largely depended upon private placements, public offerings and lending by the financial institutions. In 1973, a committee on Development of Small and Medium Enterprises highlighted the need to foster venture capital as a source of funding new entrepreneurs and technology. Thereafter some public sector funds were set up but the activity of venture capital did not gather momentum as the thrust was on high-technology projects funded on a purely financial rather than a holistic basis. REGULATORY GUIDELINES FRAMEWORK:- Later, a study was undertaken by the World Bank, to examine the possibility of developing Venture Capital in the private sector, based on which the Government of India took a policy initiative and announced guidelines for Venture Capital Funds (VCFs) in India in 1988. However, these guidelines restricted setting up of VCFs by the banks or the financial institutions only. Thereafter, the Government of India issued guidelines in September 1995, for overseas investment in Venture Capital in India. For tax-exemption purposes, guidelines were also issued by the Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) and the investments and flow of foreign currency into and out of India have been governed by the Reserve Bank of Indias (RBI) requirements. Further, as a part of its mandate to regulate and to develop the Indian capital markets, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) framed the SEBI (Venture Capital Funds) Regulations, 1996. These guidelines were further amended in April 2000 with the objective of fuelling the growth of Venture Capital activities in India. OBJECTIVES AND VISION FOR VENTURE CAPITAL IN INDIA:- Venture capitalists finance innovation and ideas which have potential for high growth but with inherent uncertainties. This makes it a high-risk, high return investment. Apart from finance, venture capitalists provide networking, management and marketing support as well. In the broadest sense, therefore, venture capital connotes financial as well as human capital. In the global venture capital industry, investors and investee firms work together closely in an enabling environment that allows entrepreneurs to focus on value creating ideas and allows venture capitalists to drive the industry through ownership of the levers of control, in return for the provision of capital, skills, information and complementary resources. This very blend of risk financing and hand holding of entrepreneurs by venture capitalists creates an environment particularly suitable for knowledge and technology based enterprises. Scientific, technology and knowledge based ideas properly supported by venture capital can be propelled into a powerful engine of economic growth and wealth creation in a sustainable manner. In various developed and developing economies venture capital has played a significant developmental role. India has the second largest English speaking scientific and technical manpower in the world. The Indian software sector crossed the Rs 100 billion mark turnover during 1998. The sector grew 58% on a year to year basis and exports accounted for Rs 65.3 billion while the domestic market accounted for Rs 35.1 billion. Exports grew by 67% in rupee terms and 55% in US dollar terms. The strength of software professionals grew by 14% in 1997 and has crossed 1,60,000. The global software sector is expected to grow at 12% to 15% per annum for the next 5 to 7 years. Recently, there has also been greater visibility of Indian companies in the US. Given such vast potential not only in IT and software but also in the field of service industries, biotechnology, telecommunications, media and entertainment, medical and health services and other technology based manufacturing and product development, venture capital industry can play a catalytic role to put India on the world map as a success story. WHERE ARE VCS INVESTING IN INDIA? IT and IT-enabled services Software Products (Mainly Enterprise-focused) Wireless/Telecom/Semiconductor Banking PSU Disinvestments Media/Entertainment Bio Technology/Bio Informatics Pharmaceuticals Electronic Manufacturing Retail ISSUES AND CHALLENGES:- Indian Venture Capital yet to be established as a sustainable asset class among institutional investors. Moreover a limited amount of true risk-capital impacts entrepreneurial activity. Exit challenges exist mainly due to shallow capital markets and dull MA environment for small companies. Most importantly, India is yet to create a brand-name for IP-led companies, like Israel has successfully done. THE GROWTH OF VENTURE CAPITAL: A CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON The venture capital (VC) industry plays an important role in nurturing entrepreneurship and innovation, and its role varies from country to country. The six countries whose VC industries are analyzed here are the United States and Canada, whose VC industries are mature; Sweden and Denmark, which have established small but successful VC industries; and Israel and Turkey, whose experiences demonstrate the state of the young VC industry in transition economies. The analysis is based on the four main determinants of the VC industry: sources of financing, institutional infrastructure, exit mechanisms, and entrepreneurship and innovation generators. In addition, the special role of VC financing in the biomaterials industry is explained. Understanding the factors that contribute to the emergence of a successful venture capital industry is important for academics, VC associations, policy-making institutions, government agencies, and investors themselves. VENTURE CAPITAL IN INDIA:- In India, the Venture Capital plays a vital role in the development and growth of innovative entrepreneurships. Venture Capital activity in the past was possibly done by the developmental financial institutions like IDBI, ICICI and State Financial Corporations. These institutions promoted entities in the private sector with debt as an instrument of funding. For a long time, funds raised from public were used as a source of Venture Capital. This source however depended a lot on the market vagaries. And with the minimum paid up capital requirements being raised for listing at the stock exchanges, it became difficult for smaller firms with viable projects to raise funds from public. In India, the need for Venture Capital was recognised in the 7th five year plan and long term fiscal policy of GOI. In 1973 a committee on Development of small and medium enterprises highlighted the need to faster VC as a source of funding new entrepreneurs and technology. VC financing really started in India in 1988 with the formation of Technology Development and Information Company of India Ltd. (TDICI) promoted by ICICI and UTI. The first private VC fund was sponsored by Credit Capital Finance Corporation (CFC) and promoted by Bank of India, Asian Development Bank and the Commonwealth Development Corporation viz. Credit Capital Venture Fund. At the same time Gujarat Venture Finance Ltd. and APIDC Venture Capital Ltd. were started by state level financial institutions. VENTURE CAPITAL INVESTMENTS IN INDIA:- The venture capital investment in India till the year 2001 was continuously increased and thereby drastically reduced. It is estimated that there was a tremendous growth by almost 327 percent in 1998-99, 132 percent in 1999-00, and 40 percent in 2000-01 thereafter venture capital investors slow down their investment. Surprisingly, there was a negative growth of 4 percent in 2001-02 it was continued and a 54 percent drastic reduction was recorded in the year 2002-2003. TYPES OF VENTURE CAPITAL FUNDS:- Generally, there are three types of organised or institutional venture capital funds: venture capital funds set up by angel investors, that is, high net worth individual investors; venture capital subsidiaries of corporations and private venture capital firms/ funds. Venture capital subsidiaries are established by major corporations, commercial bank holding companies and other financial institutions. Venture funds in India can be classified on the basis of the type of promoters. VCFs promoted by the Central govt. controlled development financial institutions such as TDICI, by ICICI, Risk capital and Technology Finance Corporation Limited (RCTFC) by the Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI) and Risk Capital Fund by IDBI. VCFs promoted by the state government-controlled development finance institutions such as Andhra Pradesh Venture Capital Limited (APVCL) by Andhra Pradesh State Finance Corporation (APSFC) and Gujarat Venture Finance Company Limited (GVCFL) by Gujarat Industrial Investment Corporation (GIIC). VCFs promoted by Public Sector banks such as Canfina by Canara Bank and SBI-Cap by State Bank of India. VCFs promoted by the foreign banks or private sector companies and financial institutions such as Indus Venture Fund, Credit Capital Venture Fund and Grindlays India Development Fund. VENTURE CAPITAL FUNDING:- Venture capitalists are typically very selective in deciding what to invest in; as a rule of thumb, a fund may invest in one in four hundred opportunities presented to it. Funds are most interested in ventures with exceptionally high growth potential, as only such opportunities are likely capable of providing the financial returns and successful exit event within the required timeframe (typically 3-7 years) that venture capitalists expect. Venture capitalists also are expected to nurture the companies in which they invest, in order to increase the likelihood of reaching an IPO stage when valuations are favorable. Venture capitalists typically assist at four stages in the companys development: Idea generation; Start-up; Ramp up; and Exit There are typically six stages of financing offered in Venture Capital, that correspond to these stages of a companys development. Seed Money: Low level financing needed to prove a new idea (Often provided by angel investors) Start-up: Early stage firms that need funding for expenses associated with marketing and product development First-Round: Early sales and manufacturing funds Second-Round: Working capital for early stage companies that are selling product, but not yet turning a profit Third-Round: Also called Mezzanine financing, this is expansion money for a newly profitable company Fourth-Round: Also called bridge financing, 4th round is intended to finance the going public process WHAT DO VCS LOOK FOR? Venture capitalists are higher risk investors and, in accepting these risks, they desire a higher return on their investment. The venture capitalist manages the risk/reward ratio by only investing in businesses which fit their investment criteria and after having completed extensive due diligence. Venture capitalists have differing operating approaches. These differences may relate to location of the business, the size of the investment, the stage of the company, industry specialization, structure of the investment and involvement of the venture capitalists in the companies activities. The entrepreneur should not be discouraged if one venture capitalist does not wish to proceed with an investment in the company. The rejection may not be a reflection of the quality of the business, but rather a matter of the business not fitting with the venture capitalists particular investment criteria. Often entrepreneurs may want to ask the venture capitalist for other firms that might be interested in the investment opportunity. VENTURE CAPITAL IS NOT SUITABLE FOR ALL BUSINESSES, AS A VENTURE CAPITALIST TYPICALLY SEEKS : Superior Businesses:- Venture capitalists look for companies with superior products or services targeted at large, fast growing or untapped markets with a defensible strategic position such as intellectual property or patents. Quality and Depth of Management:- Venture capitalists must be confident that the firm has the quality and depth in the management team to achieve its aspirations. Venture capitalists seldom seek managerial control, rather they want to add value to the investment where they have particular skills including fund raising, mergers and acquisitions, international marketing, product development, and networks. Appropriate Investment Structure:- As well as the requirement of being an attractive business opportunity, the venture capitalist will also seek to structure a deal to produce the anticipated financial returns to investors. This includes making an investment at a reasonable price per share (valuation). Exit Opportunity:- Lastly, venture capitalists look for the clear exit opportunity for their investment such as public listing or a third party acquisition of the investee company. Once a short list of appropriate venture capitalists has been selected, the entrepreneur can proceed to identify which investors match their funding requirements. At this point, the entrepreneur should contact the venture capital firm and identify an investment manager as an initial contact point. The venture capital firm will ask prospective investee companies for information concerning the product or service, the market analysis, how the company operates, the investment required and how it is to be used, financial projections, and importantly questions about the management team. In reality, all of the above questions should be answered in the Business Plan. Assuming the venture capitalist expresses interest in the investment opportunity, a good business plan is a pre-requisite. METHODS OF VENTURE FINANCING:- Venture capital is typically available in three forms in India, they are: Equity : All VCFs in India provide equity but generally their contribution does not exceed 49 percent of the total equity capital. Thus, the effective control and majority ownership of the firm remains with the entrepreneur. They buy shares of an enterprise with an intention to ultimately sell them off to make capital gains. Conditional Loan: It is repayable in the form of a royalty after the venture is able to generate sales. No interest is paid on such loans. In India, VCFs charge royalty ranging between 2 to 15 percent; actual rate depends on other factors of the venture such as gestation period, cost-flow patterns, riskiness and other factors of the enterprise. Income Note : It is a hybrid security which combines the features of both conventional loan and conditional loan. The entrepreneur has to pay both interest and royalty on sales, but at substantially low rates. Other Financing Methods: A few venture capitalists, particularly in the private sector, have started introducing innovative financial securities like participating debentures, introduced by TCFC is an example. VENTURE CAPITALISTS INVESTING IN INDIA:- For a very long time, Silicon Valley venture capitalists only invested locally. However, throughout the years, they expanded their investments worldwide. Most recently, Matrix Partners, a leading American venture capitalist firm, had announced a $150 million India fund, where they will provide internet, mobile, media, entertainment, leisure, and travel services to customers in Mumbai. Sequoia Capital, a Silicon Valley-based VC firm, wanted to take advantage of investing in start-up companies and had acquired West bridge Capital, an Indian firm, for $350 million. It is no wonder that venture capitalist investments in India have risen dramatically within the past few years. From 2005 to 2007, VC investments in India grew from $320 million to about $777 million, respectively. Some important Venture Capital Funds in India:- APIDC Venture Capital Limited , 1102, Babukhan Estate, Hyderabad 500 001 Canbank Venture Capital Fund Limited, IInd Floor, Kareem Towers, Bangalore Gujarat Venture Capital Fund 1997, Ashram Road, Ahmedabad 380 009 Industrial Venture Capital Limited, Thyagaraya Road, Chennai 600 017 Auto Ancillary Fund Opp. Signals Enclave, New Delhi 110 010 Gujarat Venture Capital Fund 1995 Ashram Road Ahmedabad 380 009 Karnataka Information Technology Venture Capital Fund Cunningham Rd Bangalore India Auto Ancillary Fund Nariman Point, Mumbai 400 021 Information Technology Fund, Nariman Point, Mumbai 400 021 Tamilnadu Infotech Fund Nariman Point, Mumbai 400 021 Orissa Venture Capital Fund Nariman Point Mumbai 400 021 Uttar Pradesh Venture Capital Fund Nariman Point, Mumbai 400 021 SICOM Venture Capital Fund Nariman Point Mumbai 400 021 Punjab Infotech Venture Fund 18 Himalaya Marg, Chandigarh 160 017 National venture fund for software and information technology industry Nariman. DHFL VENTURE CAPITAL INDIA PVT LTD:- DHFL Venture Capital India Pvt. Ltd. (DVCI) provides advisory, managerial and consultancy services to Venture Capital Funds, Venture Capital Managements and Venture Capital Undertakings, related to Indian Real Estate. DVCI is promoted by Dewan Housing Finance Corporation Limited (DHFL), Indias premier second largest housing finance company in the private sector. The Company is presently providing investment management services to DHFL Venture Capital Fund. DHFL Venture Capital Fund was launched in Feb 2006, one of the first private equity Real estate funds in India. The fund is registered with Securities and Exchange Board of India. CANBANK:- Canaan Partners (Canaan) is a global venture capital firm focusing on investments in early stage companies in the technology and healthcare sectors. The firms technology group focuses on digital media, communications, enterprise software, semiconductors, and cleantech. The healthcare group focuses on biopharmaceuticals, devices, and diagnostics. Founded in 1987, the firm has offices in Menlo Park, California; Westport, Connecticut; Gurgaon, India; and Herzliya, Israel. Since inception, Canaan has raised eight funds to date and as of 2009 manages $3 billion in capital. Canbank Venture Capital Fund Ltd (CVCFL) is a wholly owned Subsidiary of Canara Bank. Canbank Venture Capital Fund is Indias First and Only Public Sector Bank sponsored Venture Capital Fund, set up in 1989. The Fund is registered with SEBI. Four Venture Capital Funds with an aggregate corpus of around INR 1200 Million launched till date. The portfolio investments are spread across diverse industrial segments. A Case on Technology Development Information Company Of India Ltd. TDICI was incorporated in January 1988 with the support of the ICICI and the UTI. The countrys first venture fund managed by the TDICI called VECAUS ( Venture Capital Units Scheme) was started with an initial corpus of Rs.20 crore and was completely committed to 37 small and medium enterprises. The first project of the TDICI was loan and equity to a computer software company called Kale Consultants. Present Status: At present the TDICI is administering two UTI -mobilised funds under VECAUS-I and II, totaling Rs.120 crore. the Rs.20 crore invested under the first fund, VECAUS-I, has already yielded returns totaling Rs. 16 crore to its investors. Some of the projects financed by the TDICI are discussed below. MASTEK , a Mumbai based software firm, in which the TDICI invested Rs.42 lakh in equity in 1989, went public just three ye

Reality Is Perception :: essays research papers

Reality Is Perception Human reality is full of physical objects but how humans perceive these objects is completely objective, depending on the person and there senses. Perception of physical objects cannot occur without other objects that allow one to perceive these manifestations in the first place. When a sentient being acknowledges that they "exist in a world of physical objects", they also confirm that their sense perception functions to an extent which allows them to reason, even to a small degree, their physical existence. What is a physical object? Does a physical object have to be something you can see, touch, feel, taste, or smell or can a physical object exist without one being able to confirm its existence? Is the sensory perception of a fly wrong just because it has over a 1000 eyes or is the way humans view the world incorrect because we do not? A blind man can still help a person distinguish a colour because no one perception is ever totally interpreted by only one sensory organ. Many other animals on earth do not just rely on there sight for information about their world. For instance fish in totally dark areas of the ocean have no eyes and yet can still maneuver around in there environment by sensing ripples in their area with special sense organs on their body. Birds also seem to use the magnetic lines of the earth to navigate south for the winter each year. It would be foolish to make the statement that all sensory perception of the world is circumspect and is exactly the same for all creatures. All animals on the planet earth live in a hermeneutic spiral meaning that we all live in the past. Humans as with other animals can only sense a cause after it has made an effect. The assumption is made that if we sense an effect there must therefore be a cause, which leads to a naà ¯ve realism of perception. As well, with sensory perception there is a large amount of extraneous information such as emotional and ideological that causes interference as to how we interpret the information received. This misinterpretation can happen from the time an action is made to the time when we seem to perceive the action. This can be seen for instance when at a baseball game the batter bats a home run and only after a second or two you hear the crack of the bat on the ball. This can be explained because the speed of light which allows you to see the batter hitting the ball is much faster than the

Fair Is Foul and Foul Is Fair Essay

â€Å"Fair is foul, and foul is fair. Hover through the fog and filthy air,† said the witches in the first act and scene of Macbeth. Pertaining to the story, I believe this quote sheds light to the audience on the evil the witches possess. Without even reading further into the book, the audience can feel the eerie aura that the witches give off. You can foreshadow that the witches are going to turn what is good, foul and maintain what is foul. The witches are saying that fair and foul are the same: to be fair, you must be foul and to be foul, you must be fair. The witches do foul things because they think it is the only fair way. The witches basically symbolize everything that the kingdom does not need to prosper. The witches are manipulative. They manipulate Macbeth simply because his downfall would bring them joy. Evil and foul prophecies will cloud Macbeth’s judgment, making him think that they are fair and what he needs to follow. They are foul in their motives but their words are fair and their wordplay cannot be defined as lying but they skillfully dance around the truth. To the witches foul is fair and vice versa. You can also say that what is foul to any normal human is what is fair and good to the witches because they embody everything that we believe is evil. You can relate the phrase to reality or just believe that this is the witches’ opinion. Relating to real life outside of the book, I believe that this quote can mean that sometimes do be fair and just you have to go about it in a way that isn’t fair and just. Justice has to be attained, sometimes, by unjust means. It can also mean that the truth hurts and life is not fair, also to be fair is not to be appealing. These two words are opposite of their meanings. Depending on a person’s definition of fair and foul, it can change its meaning. It is circumstantial, and the meaning can change frequently. Defining fair as benevolent and good and foul as evil and menacing, you can say that to be good, you have to be malicious and to malicious you have to go about it in a ‘good’ and nice way. Some things that are fair might not always be the best but things that are fair might always be what a person what a person wants. Also, it could mean that people and things aren’t as they seem. People who seem foul could be fair and people who seem fair could be foul.